Muskaan Kalaria
31st August, 2024
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) comprise a wide range of disabilities that emerge due to disruptions in the brain and its development (Thapar et al., 2017). The DSM-5 groups Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Intellectual Disability (ID), Communication Disorders, Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) and Motor Disorders under this umbrella diagnosis. NDDs are characterised by early neurocognitive onset that usually occurs before the commencement of puberty. Although heritable, multiple factors play a role in the emergence of an NDD. A concrete cause of NDDs has not been clearly defined yet. Researchers have established a link between prenatal events and the origin of NDDs. A study found that a mother’s diet had a significant impact on the metabolic diseases that her child got. Similar effects have also been hypothesised for the cause of NDDs (Bale et al., 2010). Bitta et al. (2018) found that prenatal complications followed by a history of febrile illness and family history were the most prevalent risk factors for NDDs (Bitta et al., 2018).
Specifiers for each underlying disorder in the NDD spectrum provide a clinical description of the course and symptomatology. Some are associated with genetic or environmental factors that provide information regarding factors that might have played a role in the disorder's aetiology. Genetic factors include Tuberous Sclerosis, Fragile X syndrome, and Rett syndrome whereas environmental factors include low birth weight, fetal alcohol syndrome or exposure to alcohol and toxins(5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
NDDs are highly comorbid with other psychiatric disorders as well as with other NDs. The results of a study indicated that children with one NDD had coexisting psychiatric disorders or multiple NDDs at once. For example, kids on the Autism Spectrum are often diagnosed with intellectual disability which leads to developmental delays (Hansen et al., 2018).
Typically, NDDs are commonly diagnosed in the male population and are heterogeneous in terms of their treatment, diagnosis and outcomes. For treatment and assessment, a range of specialists from various specialisations are required to make correct observations which is then followed by collectively working on the presenting problem. For example, an ADHD diagnosis requires input from school teachers on the child’s academic performance and classroom behaviour, a paediatrician's or a child psychologist’s assessment of the characteristics and at-hand symptoms and an occupational therapist who could work to transform dysfunctional repetitive motor habits (Thapar et al., 2017). Despite there being overlaps between various NDs, these disorders vary in their biological and clinical sense.
Types of neurodevelopmental disorders
Neurodevelopmental disorder is an umbrella term for a group of disorders that originate during the developmental period. These are characterised by deficits that affect social, occupational and educational aspects of life. The disorders under this term are as follows.
First is Intellectual disability (ID) where an individual experiences deficits in intellectual as well as adaptive functioning. Further, global developmental delay is a disorder similar to ID but this is reserved for children under the age of 5. It can be diagnosed in children who can’t be correctly assessed for an ID diagnosis as they are too young to participate in standardised tests used for an ID diagnosis. Unspecified intellectual disability is another form of an ID which is diagnosed in children above the age of 5 who face difficulty getting assessed for an ID due to physical impairments like blindness, deafness, locomotor disability or co-occurring other mental disorders.
Next in line comes communication disorder, a term used for a group of disorders that are characterised by impairments in speech, sound production, speech comprehension and difficulty assessing speech in various contexts. This category includes Language disorder, Speech and Sound disorder, childhood-onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering), Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder and Unspecified Communication Disorder. The affected individuals have difficulty speaking due to reduced vocabulary and repetition of words due to which they face difficulty in accurately using rules of grammar. This leads to anxiety that affects their social interactions.
Then comes Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) which affects an individual’s social communication and interaction skills that hampers their relationships, education, development and social interaction. Individuals face difficulty in holding conversations. experience abnormal social interaction, stereotypic movements, inflexibility to changes in their environment, sensitivity to environmental sensory stimulation, hyperactivity, and in some cases sensory overload so severe that it leads to meltdown.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), one of the most commonly diagnosed childhood disorders, is a disorder characterised by a persistent pattern of inattention or impulsivity that affects the person’s daily life, social as well as occupational life. ADHD and ASD are often first noticed by the children’s teacher in a classroom setting. The child is often reviewed to be ‘frequently distracted’ and ‘has difficulty making friends.’ ADHD hyperactivity causes children to be excessively fidgety, they face difficulty sitting in one place and are described as being often ‘on the go.’ It ranges in its severity and can be diagnosed at multiple levels. Other Specified Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder accounts for ADHA symptoms but not to the extent that the kid can be clinically diagnosed with the same. Unspecified Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder is also the term used for children meeting a few diagnostic criteria but not to the extent that they can be clinically diagnosed with ADHD.
Children with Specific Learning Disorders have difficulties learning and using academic skills which have at least persisted for 6 months or more. They find reading and writing a chore and find it difficult to understand the meaning of the text presented to them. They spell words incorrectly and have difficulties mastering mathematical equations.
Lastly, Motor disorders comprising developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement disorder and tic disorder (unspecified and other) are disorders that affect a person’s execution of coordinated movements. Such individuals can have difficulty riding a bike, holding cutlery, using scissors, and repetitive motor behaviours like rocking or head banging that affect their social interactions. Tic disorder further comprises Tourette’s, persistent motor or vocal tic disorder and provisional tic disorder. Tics are sudden, rapid, recurrent, non-rhythmic motor movements or vocalisation (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Motor disorders make it difficult for the individual to carry out daily tasks and they often need support from others.
Diagnostic Criteria
As mentioned above, disorders under the umbrella of NDDs do overlap in their symptoms, but their diagnostic criteria vary from one neurodevelopmental disorder to another. The common criterion that stays consistent throughout every disorder is the onset period which should be during the developmental period of the child (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Intellectual disability
The first disorder under neurodevelopmental disorders is Intellectual disability where an individual experiences intellectual as well as adaptive deficits in social and practical domains of life (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Three criteria must be met for one to be diagnosed with an ID. First is that intellectual deficits like problem-solving, planning, reasoning, judgement and learning should be observed in the patient which need to be diagnosed and assessed accurately by a clinician with the help of standardised tests. Next comes the presence of adaptive functioning deficits that hamper developmental and socio-cultural standards of independence and responsibility (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These deficits limit the patient’s communication skills, independent living, social skills and participation across school, work and community (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Lastly, these deficits should have an onset that occurs during the developmental period of the child. ID level range comprises mild, moderate, severe and profound levels. These levels depend on adaptive functioning and IQ scores. For example, if a kid has been facing difficulties understanding written language, numbers and time allocation then he can be diagnosed with a severe case of intellectual disability specific in the conceptual domain. If he requires daily support for his meals, dressing, and bathing, and needs to be supervised at all times then he will have a severe level of ID in the practical domain (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Communication disorders
Communication disorders are characterised by deficits in language production, and communication. The first one, Language disorder, includes persistent problems in language i.e., spoken, or written. The person has a reduced vocabulary, an inability to produce sentences, difficulty putting together words improper use of grammar rules due to difficulty understanding their importance, and a problem describing events using words. The individual experiences language abilities that are below expectations for his age. This affects him in social situations as he finds it hard to make and understand conversations. The difficulties faced during an ID should neither be attributed to hearing, sensory or motor dysfunction nor other neurological or medical conditions (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Further, DSM mentions Speech and Sound Disorder where the individual finds it difficult to produce speech and sound which affects his verbal skills (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The dysfunction causes social, occupational and academic disturbance that affects the person's overall performance and quality of life. These difficulties emerge during the developmental period and are not attributed to acquired conditions like congenital disorders, cleft palate, hearing loss, deafness, traumatic brain injury or other neurological disorders (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Then comes Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder or Stuttering which is characterised by disturbances in the fluency of speech especially one which isn’t appropriate for their age group. The person struggles with sound repetitions and prolongations and often uses broken words and sentences. They experience circumlocutions and produce words with much tension. The disturbance faced is a lead cause of anxiety which restricts their social communication and participation. If diagnosed later than the developmental period, this disorder is then named Adult-Onset Fluency Disorder.
Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder is characterised by deficits in social use of communication (verbal as well as nonverbal). The individual faces issues in greeting, and sharing information, uses different communication styles in different situations, has difficulty following rules in conversations etc. They face impairment in understanding metaphors, hypothetical scenarios and humour. These deficits lead to social, occupational and educational withdrawal and they often find themselves avoiding conversations in a social setting. The following symptoms should not be further explained by other neurological disorders, ASD and ID.
Autism spectrum disorder
ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is defined by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction in various contexts. The individual faces difficulty in holding normal conversations and understanding nonverbal cues, gestures, body language and maintaining adequate eye contact. They find it difficult to form and maintain relationships. Children with ASD face difficulty making friends and understanding shared and imaginative play. They also engage in repetitive and restrictive patterns of behaviour which results in repetitive motor movements like flipping objects, restrive interests that are unusual in sensory aspect, hyper fixation on particular topics, and the inability to adjust to changes leading to certain ritualistic patterns of behaviour for particular things. These symptoms are not better explained using ID or global developmental delay. Individuals with a DSM diagnosis of ASD, Asperger’s, or pervasive developmental disorder should be given the diagnosis of ASD. however, this does not apply to children with social communication deficits and they should be evaluated for social pragmatic communication disorder instead (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
ADHD is the most diagnosed disorder in children. It follows a pattern of inattention hyperactivity or both which affects the individual's daily functioning. It is either characterised by inattention or by hyperactivity where the individual struggles with 6 or more of the following symptoms for 6 months or more. The symptoms of inattention include failure to give attention to details, making careless mistakes in school, difficulty sustaining attention, not listening when spoken to, forgetting things, not following through with tasks, difficulty organising tasks, improper time management, and being easily distracted due to extraneous stimuli. The symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity include fidgeting or tapping hands and legs, inability to be seated in one place for a long period, running and climbing in places that are inappropriate, unable to enjoy leisure activities and finding it hard to stay in one place, excessive talking, answering before letting the teacher complete her question, difficulty waiting for their turn, and interrupting a conversation to make their point (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). For a diagnosis, the symptoms need to be present before the age of 12 years and they should be reflected in two or more settings. A diagnosis is confirmed for ADHD when the persistent symptoms aren’t attributed to schizophrenia, psychotic disorder or other mental disorders. Both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity can occur simultaneously but they should last for at least 6 months. Other specified/unspecified ADHD disorder category applies to children who experience similar symptoms as ADHD that affect their daily functioning but not to the extent that they meet the full criteria for ADHD.
Specific learning disorder
Children with specific learning disorders face difficulties in learning and using their academic knowledge. They face problems in reading where they read incorrectly and slowly. They find it hard to understand the meaning of text presented to them and make spelling as well as grammatical mistakes. Difficulty with numbers and their calculations along with poor mathematical reasoning follows this disorder. The diagnosis requires at least one of the above-mentioned symptoms and should at least last for 6 months. The academic skills presented by a person with a specific learning disorder should be below their chronological age and cause significant distress with occupational or academic performance (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Children above the age of 17 should have a history of the above-mentioned difficulties in their childhood to account for a complete assessment. The learning difficulties expressed in a specific learning disorder need not be due to ID, visual, auditory or other mental disorders.
Motor coordination disorders
This category includes Developmental Coordination Disorder, Stereotypic Movement Disorder and Tic Disorder. Developmental Coordination Disorder comprises deficits in motor coordination and movement which is reflective of an age that is substantially below the chronological age. Motor deficits include clumsiness while performing daily tasks, slowness, difficulty using scissors and riding bikes, bumping into objects, and inaccurate performance of motor skills. The symptoms mentioned cause significant and persistent interference with daily living and are not explained by ID, visual and auditory impairment and other neurological conditions.
Then comes Stereotypic Movement Disorder where the individual engages in repetitive, driven and seemingly purposeless behaviour like body shaking, waving, head banging and self-biting or hitting. The disorder severity level ranges from mild to severe and the repetitive behaviours lead to academic, occupational and social life dysfunction which sometimes ends up as injury to self. Although stereotypic movements are observed in other disorders as well such as ASD, one should know that for a clinical diagnosis, stereotypic movements must not be due to other neurological conditions like OCD, or trichotillomania (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). It should be specified if the disorder occurs with self-injury or has been associated with any other behaviour like ID or Lesch-Nhyan syndrome.
Lastly, DSM 5 mentions the Tic Disorders. There are three subcategories under this section; Tourette’s, Persistent Motor or Vocal Tic Disorder, and Provisional Tic Disorder. In Tourette’s syndrome, a person experiences both motor and vocal tics that wax and wane in frequency. They exist for at least 1 year or more and the onset should be before the age of 18. The defect is not attributed to substance abuse or other medical conditions like Huntington’s disease. In Persistent (chronic) Motor or Vocal Tic Disorder a person experiences single or multiple tics but not both motor or vocal at the same time. Apart from the abovementioned symptoms, all other symptoms remain constant for all the subdivisions of a Tic disorder. Lastly, Provisional Tic Disorder is characterised by either motor or vocal or both occurring simultaneously but it does not meet the criteria for Tourette’s or a persistent Tic disorder.
Prevalence
The National Centre for Health Statistics provided statistics for the United States in 2015 which revealed that 15% of children between the ages of 3 to 17 were affected by NDDs. A study from 2021 done in Spain found that NDDs were underdiagnosed and provided the following prevalence rates; ID, 0.63%; CD, 1.05%; ASD, 0.70%; ADHD, 9.92%; SLD, 10.0%; and MD, 0.76% (Bosch et al., 2021). An Indian study from 2018 assessed the prevalence rates of visual impairment, epilepsy, neuromotor disability, hearing impairment, speech and language disorders, ASD and ID. The prevalence of NDDs varied from place to place. Children between the ages of 6 to 9 reported 6.5% to 18.5% prevalence whereas children between the ages of 2 to 6 reported 2.9% to 18.5% prevalence out of the 9 NDDs. Learning impairments, ID, speech and language disorders were common across all the locations. Approximately one-fifth of children had two or more NDDs and the most common ones were ASD. cerebral palsy, ID and epilepsy (Arora et al., 2018). Norway on the other hand studied the prevalence rates of ADHD, tic disorder, ASD, and homotypic and heterotypic comorbid disorders. 55% of children referred to Child Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) had NDDs (Hansen et al., 2018).
According to the DSM 5, the prevalence of an ID in the general population is approximately 1% and these rates vary according to age. Severe ID is observed in approximately 6 per 1000 individuals. ADHD is prevalent in about 5% of children and about 2.5% of adults 5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Learning disorders specifically specific learning disorders in the academic domain of reading, writing and maths are 5% to 15% in school-age children across various cultures. In adults, it is approximately 4% according to the DSM 5 5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). For motor disorders, the prevalence in children aged 5-11 years ranges from 5% to 6%. In children aged 7 years, approximately 1.8% of individuals are diagnosed with severe developmental coordination disorder. Simple stereotypic movements like rocking are common in developing children. 4% to 16% of individuals with an ID perform stereotypic movements and injure themselves. Tics are common in childhood but they cease after a certain time. The estimated prevalence of Tourette’s ranges from 3-8 children out of 1000. 5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Francés et al. (2022) provide a systematic review following DSM-5 and PRISMA criteria. They found that there had been only some studies that focused on measuring the prevalence of NDDs under the age of 18. They reported the following data; ID at 0.63%, ADHD between 5-11%, ASD between 0.70-3%, specific learning disorder between 3-10%, communication disorder at 1-3.42% and motor disorders between 0.76-17%. (Francés et al., 2022). They concluded that the prevalence of NDDs has stayed consistent over time, cultures, ages, ethnicities and different genders. The variation in these prevalences depends on estimation procedures and socio-contextual situations.
Gender/Age and cultural differences in manifestation
Neurodevelopmental disorders are prevalent in all cultures and ethnicities therefore it is important to take into account all the factors that may play a role in the development and adaptive functioning of the patient. Cultural sensitivity is an important aspect that needs to be maintained when assessing an individual for NDDs. Proper background checks involving the person’s ethnicity, culture, experiences and linguistic background need to be performed during their assessment.
Overall males are more likely to be diagnosed with mild (male: female ratio 1.6:1) and severe ID (average male: female ratio 1.2:1) (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Sex-linked genetic variables could be one reason why they are more vulnerable. Similarly, ASD has been observed to develop 4 times more often in males than in females. Studies also report that males with ASD exhibit aggression, hyperactivity and repetitive behaviour greater than females. Girls on the other hand portray an accompanying diagnosis of intellectual disability and language delays. They also are better at camouflaging their behaviour which makes it harder for a concrete diagnosis (Willcutt, 2012). This occurs because their manifestations of social and communication problems are much subtler than those of their male counterparts. They also portray more signs of anxiety and depression. On the other hand, according to the DSM, ADHD is more frequent in females in the general population with a ratio of 2:1 in children and 1.6: 1 in adults. Females also present inattentiveness at a greater level. Just like ASD and ID, learning disorders are more common in males than in females ( 2:1 to 3:1 ratio). Whereas Willcutt (2012) reported that males are at a larger risk of both types of ADHD; hyperactivity as well as inattentiveness while females are more likely to get diagnosed with inattentiveness (Willcutt, 2012).
Learning disorders vary across cultures based on the nature of their spoken language and written symbol systems that are affected due to different cultures and their difference in languages. In the English language, the observable clinical symptom of a learning disorder can be assessed from reading inaccuracy and slowness. Whereas the same observable diagnostic feature in the Chinese or Japanese language is based on slowness but not on reading accuracy as individuals almost always excel at that. In developmental coordination disorder, males are more affected than females with a ratio between 2:1 and 7:1. As for Tics, males are more commonly affected than females with a ratio between 2:1 to 4:1. The cases reported in the African American and Hispanic Americans were lower than Americans. However, there are no gender differences in the kinds of tics, age of onset and course. Women are more likely to experience anxiety and depression due to a tic disorder (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Culture plays an important factor in NDDs. Some studies show that Eastern cultures have greater cases of autism than Western cultures (they score higher than Western cultures on the Autism Spectrum Quotient) (Baron et al, 2001). Multicultural differences have driven researchers to develop culturally sensitive scales to properly evaluate individuals from different backgrounds.
When it comes to the assessment of LDs it is important to take into account the native language and origin of the child affected. A non-English speaker will face challenges in language production but that does not mean they have an LD. Most of the LD tests are made for the white population, although now there have been efforts to change this.
Overall, it is important to ensure that when patients are being assessed for NDDs all factors such as age, gender culture and historical background must be accurately collected to ensure no biases can occur due to variations in these factors.
Possible treatments
Neurodevelopmental disorders are manageable but not curable yet. If diagnosed at an early stage, these can be managed with interventions that can reduce the significant impact they pose on the life of the patient. By helping one understand their condition and how to manage it, interventions make it easier to live a life which could've been ruled by the disorder.
Gross motor skill development is an important developmental milestone that kids need to ensure healthy development. Poor gross motor skills lead to reduced performance and participation in daily activity and increase the chances of a sedentary lifestyle and chronic diseases in adulthood (Lucas et al., 2016). Poor gross motor skills are observed in NDDs such as developmental coordination disorder, cerebral palsy, developmental delay and brain injuries. Treatments for the same are divided into traditional treatments that combine sensory integration, gross motor and fine motor activities, a process-oriented treatment that uses specifically designed kinesthetic activities and task-oriented strategies that focus on practising real-life activities to acquire the missing skill. Studies have shown that due to neuroplasticity it is beneficial if an NDD can be detected in its early stage so that one can strategise the use of correct intervention before the disorder progresses.
The best strategy to tackle NDDs is early detection as mentioned above. Esakki et al. (2022) plan to apply and provide intervention modules to primary and preschool teachers as they are the links between children and their early-stage development aside from parents. This is a great initiative to ensure the early detection and development of intervention plans for children, especially in the rural parts of India where information and knowledge are lacking.
Infants at a higher risk of NDDs can be identified early in life during their first few weeks/months with the help of clinical evaluations, neurological examinations and observations. Using neuroimaging techniques such as MRI, cranial ultrasounds, EEGs, genetic tests and identifiers can help assess the disorder at the beginning of the child’s life. Cioni et al. (2016) mentions that for cerebral palsy the most common early detection assessment known as the Prechtl’s General Movement Assessment along with brain MRI can help detect this disorder from the first month of the child’s life. By identifying these disorders at an early stage, parents and health care providers strengthen their bond and in the future work in collaboration to enhance the quality of life of their child. Parental education and involvement have proved to be a positive step in the development of interventions for NDDs. This doesn't just benefit the affected, but it also enhances hope for the parents and their outcomes such as anxiety regarding the situation, depressive symptoms or self-efficacy (Cioni et al., 2016). Kim (2021) writes about the strategies paediatricians should use to tackle neurodevelopmental disorders. The paper mentions that parenting programs had mixed views. While some found them beneficial others in the case of hyperactivity had rated them to be ineffective. Psychological therapies had greater success outcomes than parenting programs in Korea. Paediatricians should first provide parenting programs and neurodevelopmental therapy then move on to medications if the former seems ineffective (Wolraich et al., 2019).
For autism spectrum disorder, interventions like speech therapy can help children gain self-control in their behaviours and communication skills. Although there is no cure for this disorder, with the help of interventions adults can live independently if proper interventions and medications are provided as needed. The main goal when treating children with autism is to reduce deficits and increase their quality of life. Therapists focus on developing their functioning to a point that they can live independently. Teachers, psychologists, parents, friends, and speech therapists, should all work collaboratively to help improve patients’ lifestyles. Behaviour therapy along with education programs catered to their needs, when provided early in life, can help enhance lacking skills like socialisation, adapting to changes to a certain level, and decrease the severity of the symptoms and maladaptive behaviours. Medications assist with associated symptoms such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behaviour.
ADHD is most commonly tackled using stimulant medications that treat the core symptoms of the disorder. However, there are negative side effects too which lead to a decrease in appetite, increased blood pressure and insomnia. Barkley (2006) believes that providing children with stimulants is better than leaving ADHD untreated. Parent management training is also an additional aspect of ADHD that is provided to ease the parent's discomfort and frustration. This training provides them with several ways to cope with managing their child’s behaviour. This training includes teaching them how to effectively use immediate consequences using rewards and punishments. Children with ADHD react positively to these behavioural strategies.
Learning disorders can be effectively handled by exposing the child to a method of learning that suits them. This is known as the mastery model where the child chooses his pace of work, level of mastery and focus is provided for fundamental skill development. Classroom adjustments and special equipment are provided by the school for such kids. Robert Sternberg believes that early detection and intervention can greatly reduce the number of children who meet the criteria for a learning disability. He strongly suggests that children with such disabilities should not always be targeted with their deficits but rather people should also focus on their range of strengths and weaknesses.
As for communication disorders, treatment focuses on language therapy, special education classes, and therapy for addressing behavioural problems. With time and the correct measures, communication disorders can be improved using early detection. Unfortunately, for motor disorders, this seems to be no cure at the moment that reverses the damage. But the first step in treatment is providing the right kind of psychoeducation to the ones affected and their surrounding relatives. Parents can feel overwhelmed with the knowledge that their child suffers from tics or tourettes. Providing social support for illness anxiety can help reduce its intensity. Some cases of developmental coordination disorder can be dealt with using physical and occupational therapy. In the case of tic disorders, behavioural therapy along with habit reversal training and exposure and response prevention are the first steps in the intervention plan.
Lastly, for children with an ID, psychosocial and behavioural treatments, and cognitive and family-oriented strategies work wonders. The intervention focuses on increasing basic skills advancing basic development and protecting the kids from bullying, teasing and punishment. A child often undergoes one-on-one therapy sessions. Through the use of positive reinforcements, a child is encouraged to pronounce syllables and try and put in their best efforts to tackle their shortcomings. Using visual and hearing aids can help them understand more easily. As the child ages, parents are asked to teach their kids about managing responsibilities, and dealing with employment and relationships. Although again, there is no such cure for learning disabilities yet, if the severity of the condition increases the patients are also prescribed medications along with therapy and other interventions.
Conclusion
In conclusion, neurodevelopmental disorders are a variety of disorders that develop during the developmental period of a child. If left unnoticed they cause severe impairments in personal, social, occupational and educational life. Recent interventions in neuroimaging, genetics and neuroscience assessment and identification of NDDs at an early life help improve the quality of life of the individual. A collaboration of different specialists like speech therapists, psychologists, researchers, parents and teachers will hopefully one day lead to the development of concrete treatments for NDDs that currently aren’t curable.
Muskaan Kalaria is part of the Global Internship Research Program (GIRP) under IJNGP.
TAGS NEURODEVELOPMENT DISORDER | AUTISM | ADHD | TREATMENT
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