Aditi Singh
Amity University, Noida
26th February 2025
The word “research” which is generally known as the discovery of the unknown (Redman and Mory, 2010), is also the backbone of knowledge creation and expansion of a field of study. For years, research has led humankind to progress and has proved to be the cornerstone of civilization on Earth. The importance of research in academia cannot be overstated. It facilitates discussion and creation of new concepts, ideas, trends and advancements (Kothari, 2004). It drives students, scholars and professionals to discuss, explore and address the emerging issues and questions in a subject area (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Research is the primary way to test hypotheses and explore relationships between variables. (Kerlinger, 1986) Fundamentally, it is a methodical study and testing, intended to confirm previous findings or unearth new knowledge. Writing a research paper is a well organised, deliberate and planned venture which is motivated by curiosity with the goal of learning more about a particular area and/or solving real world problems (Galvan, 2017). The goals of research is, first, to produce new knowledge that adds to the body of current literature; second, to apply this knowledge to problems that arise in the real world.
It is crucial to know and understand the steps and stages of writing a research paper before beginning to write paper. It is vital that you can create a comprehensive and cohesive academic work (Bell & Waters, 2014).
Formulating a Research Idea
While it is important to make sure that a topic is relevant and researchable, it is also important that the topic keeps us curious throughout our journey of writing the paper. Writing a research paper can be overwhelming and this curiosity works as a motivating factor to keep us going. One of the most important stages in the process of research is without a doubt choosing the right research topic (Punch, 2013). The importance of the topic is that it sets the stage for the whole research project, where research questions, hypotheses, and research methods are prepared. An appropriate topic is not only of interest to the researcher’s span of the study but it also seeks to fill in the gaps that exist in the literature (Kothari, 2004).
Several other aspects have to be weighed very carefully in order to identify a research topic that is both relevant and manageable. One useful approach is to investigate current fads in the topic area of study. Recent contents of professional journals or relevant symposiums would be of assistance in understanding which areas are active and relevant among the scholars.(Creswell & Creswell, 2017) Also, further questions existing from the previous studies may lead to some interesting research topics.
In addition, it is worth taking into consideration more personal factors. This is because most of the research projects may take a long span of several months or many years and therefore it is important to choose a topic that will sustain one’s interests till the completion of the project (Galvan, 2017). While it may appear easy to begin with a wide topic perspective, it is actually easier and more productive to concentrate on a particular problem or question. Which topics are appropriate to study in relation to modern science? A relevant topic is not only academic in nature but also about solving global problems. For example, studies on anxiety disorders, global warming, or any other social equity issues can be quickly utilized in policymaking or clinical settings. This is as true as it seems; because even relevance has its own limitations since it must be compromised bit by bit with other impediments. A scholar who may have the heart to do simple and macro level expansive work may be deterred for though willing the scope narrows to the extent of how few materials are available (PUNCH, 2013).
Background Reading and Literature Review
Background Reading not only acquaints the researcher with their subject matter and existing knowledge and work in the field but also helps us to formulate the research question which is the foundation of a research paper (Galvan, 2017).
Background Reading usually entails two types of paper that people delve into, these include:
Conceptual Literature: Concerned with theories and concepts
Empirical Literature: Concerned with studies made earlier which are similar to our research problem. (Kothari, 2004)
Reading deeper into our research topic provides us with a fundamental understanding of the foundational concepts, theories and significant studies done on our topic (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). It gives us an insight for what may be explored and what has already been discussed. It also opens the door for potential gaps and limitations in the research done. To begin with, pertinent literature should be skimmed with a purpose before coming up with the hypothesis. This is to help ensure that the problem understudy has not been solved before and serves in constructing the theory. This stage should also focus on exploring the latest research works to examine whether there are any gaps, contradictions, or outstanding issues in the current work . This, most often, in layman’s terms refers to “literature review”. In this regard, they form an important component of the research work conducted in the field of humanities, social sciences and sciences; this is because they offer the justification for the new proposition that the researcher is attempting to establish. A literature review that meets the acceptable standard is the one which creates a clear theoretical bearing to the paper. It is very important to look for academic databases and select sources that are credible, peer reviewed books and articles. Researchers usually incorporate sources such as Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, PsychInfo and JSTOR in their research pursuits.(Bell & Waters, 2014) Ensuring the sources being used are credible, relevant, accurate and current is equally important. The parameter of publication date can also be used in order to rule out ill-sourced and non conducive works that are outdated. The other important reason of arranging in the order of the time is it harmonizes the different parts and also helps demonstrate the hold of the field over the relevant sources and their interrelations to the research being conducted in a wider setting. Going through relevant literature to your research problem helps in ensuring that the research question has not already been answered, and provides a firm foundation for the hypothesis. Identifying gaps, inconsistencies and looking for unresolved questions in the existing body of work in recent studies helps us in formulating a hypothesis which is relevant and not previously explored. The objective is to provide with a summary of the themes, methodologies, and findings, enhancing one’s own as well as the readers, understanding of the topic that they are about to explore. To entertain both sides of any ongoing debate and to remove as much bias from the paper as possible, it is advised to use readings both for and against the hypothesis that you decide.
Research Question and Hypotheses
Identifying the research problem is vital for the development of hypotheses. There are usually two types of research problems:
The one’s which relate to states of nature
Those which explore the relationships between two variables
The research problem should address a gap in the current literature and offer to explore a new area of interest.
A hypothesis, consequently, is a part of scientific investigation and testable prediction about a relationship between variables. (Kerlinger, 1986) The good hypothesis should be specific, falsifiable, and directly relevant to the research question. It needs to be worded in such a manner that it may be verified empirically, either by appropriate experimental means or through statistical evaluation.
The independent and dependent variables must be specified in terms of the expected interaction between them. (Creswell & Creswell, 2017) Typically, researchers use two kinds of hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis (H₀): This hypothesis posits no significant relationship between the variables under investigation.
Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): This hypothesis suggests a meaningful effect or association between the variables.
Research Design and Methodology
The design of a research is the overall conceptual structure and strategy which would be deployed to conduct the research. Research design depends on the research purpose which is what your research is aiming to study. Research purposes can be categorized into four types, these include: Exploration, Experimentation, Diagnosis and Description. Research purpose plays a critical role in determining a study’s design.
Your research design should be formed to align with the nature of your research question. The right research design is what will determine whether objectives set forth in a study have been met. The designing of a research design typically involves: consideration of methods by which information would be obtained, the availability of the researcher as well as the availability and expertise of any team members involved; articulation as to how chosen methods will be implemented and why they were selected; a set timeframe for conducting the research; and sources of financial resources which may be utilized in carrying out the research.
Types of Research Designs:
Research designs can be classified into three significant types: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Most researchers argue that the approaches are not isolated but exist in the continuum, with one end having qualitative approaches and the other end having quantitative methods, with mixed methods being in the middle (Newman & Benz, 1998). Sometimes, differences between approaches are influenced by data nature gathered-qualitative research uses words and open-ended questions, while quantitative relies on numbers and closed-ended questions. However, the factors entail a more aspect extending beyond the collection of data to include philosophical assumptions, strategies, as well as research and methods (Creswell, 2008).
Qualitative research focuses on investigating the meanings that individuals or groups assign to social or human problems. It involves open-ended questions, emergent data, and inductive reasoning to build general themes from specifics, allowing interpretation and analysis (Creswell, 2007). It tries to get rich data and study complex social phenomena through interviews, focus groups as well as ethnography (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). This includes the information related to people's attitudes and experiences.
Quantitative Research tests objective theories by establishing the relationships that exist between variables. Quantitative research usually occurs predominantly with instruments, and it analyzes data by making use of statistical procedures. Quantitative research is far more rigid, with a standard format. (Creswell, 2008). They tend to use statistical analysis to test hypotheses or get a sense of patterns or relationships between variables.
Mixed Method Research combines various elements from both qualitative and quantitative approaches better to exploit the advantages of each of these approaches. In that respect, it uses both kinds of data collection and analysis to strengthen the overall design of the study according to Creswell & Plano Clark (2007).
While each of the approaches has its distinctive features, the integration of these approaches in mixed methods research enables drawing upon the strength of both qualitative and quantitative methods for enhanced and robust findings.
Sampling
Sampling is a procedure for selecting some representative subset, or sample, from the population to conduct research. Careful selection of an appropriate sample is considered one of the most effective ways that impacts the reliability and applicability of the study results.. To ensure that the results are applicable to a larger population, a well designed sample has to be representative. Purpose of the study, practical limitations and characteristics of the population are other contributing factors when choosing a sampling technique.
Types of Sampling Techniques include:
Probability Sampling:
Under probability sampling, every member in a population has an identified known probability of being selected, allowing for more rigorous statistical inference (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Common methods of probability sampling include:
Simple Random Sampling: This sample ensures that there is representation because each member or unit in the population has an equal probability of being included. That is, everyone has a fair opportunity of being represented. There are two kinds of SRS (Kothari, 2004).
With Replacement: After a unit is selected, then it is placed back into the population so that in the next draw, one can again have a choice among the n units. One of the n units has a 1/N chance of being selected in each of the n draws.
Without Replacement: After a unit has been selected, then this one unit is not replaced back into the population. In the subsequent draws, the chances are different because the population size decreases. For the nth unit, this now becomes 1/(N-n+1)
Systematic Sampling: This is a type of sampling whereby the first item is selected randomly and then every ith element from a population is chosen. The selected intervals can be obtained through either the size of the population or the desired sample size. It provides even spread of the sample over the population thus offering diversity and higher precision. It provides the ease, cost, and simplicity of use particularly with large populations.
Stratified Sampling: The population gets divided into strata and then a random sample is drawn from each stratum for providing the representation. It involves division of population into non-overlapping subpopulations or strata which are based upon shared characteristics. A sample in then used from each stratum ensuring representation of all segments. Stratified Sampling increases the precision by focusing on more homogeneous groups within the population. It provides greater accuracy and detail. (Creswell, 2014).
Cluster sampling: In cluster sampling, a random collection or cluster of sampling units are selected. A random number of clusters are selected and further on the sample of individuals are constructed within those clusters. Clusters can be based on geographic subdivisions based on geographic or non-geographic groupings. This method is cost efficient and provides better cooperation from the sample. Optimum clutter size balances the trade off between minimizing costs and maximizing precision (Kothari, 2004).
Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling are techniques where not every population member stands a chance of selection. This is utilized wherever probability sampling is difficult or unpractical to obtain. Some of the most common non-probability sampling techniques include:
Convenience Sampling: Sample is the population that is easily accessible and willing to participate in the study. (Bell & Waters, 2014) Samples are selected on the ease at which the researcher can access them. Usually, it results in biased estimates and does not offer a method to calculate sampling error. So whereas convenience sampling saves time and energy, its non-representativeness limits its applicability toward generalizing conclusions.
Purposive Sampling: Researchers make judgment selections of individuals who are likely to be of help and representative of the population. This method does not offer an equal chance of each member in the population being chosen and personal bias may potentially distort the results (Teddlie & Yu, 2007).
Snowball Sampling: The most commonly used method in marketing research is snowball sampling. This technique applies sample selection on the basis of some special characteristics so that sample drawn will represent the population reasonably (Babbie, 2010). Participants refer others who may be interested in participating.
Quota Sampling: In quota sampling, the choice of sample units will depend upon the discretion of the interviewer, and it will easily become a target for bias. Results cannot be treated with formal statistical methods. Despite being convenient and cost-effective, quota sampling suffers from the lack of randomness that is inherent to probability sampling.
Data Collection
Choosing a suitable data collection method that meets the goals of your study is essential. It is one of the most significant stages of research since it directly has an effect on authenticity and integrity of our work. Data collection can be carried out in various ways such as surveys, experiments, case studies, interviews, and observation. To increase the validity and reliability of data, the use of proper data collection instruments is essential, as it forms the backbone of your research study (Creswell, 2014). Consistency in data collection methods also ensures data integrity and comparability. Pilot Examination, or trying out data collection technique on a limited scale before the actual data collection, is usually done to find any possible problems that may arise (Bell & Waters, 2014). Before conducting a careful choice of a suitable method of data collection, the nature of the investigation, objectives, scope, financial resources, time available, and desired accuracy level should be considered by a researcher.
Popular Data Collection methods are:
Experiment: This approach manipulates variables in controlled conditions with the outcome of what would happen. It is especially applicable for setting the causal relationships and testing hypotheses (Bryman, 2016; Creswell, 2014).
Survey: A survey is another primary method of gathering information from a group of several people. They can be allocated in any of the following ways:
Observation: The researcher observes without directly interacting with the respondents. This is very handy in natural behaviour data collection or evading the interfering power of the researcher (DeVaus, 2013).The researcher, though, has to spend a lot of time with potentially limited scope.
Personal Interview: Personal interviews involve face-to-face interactions between the researcher and respondents. The researcher asks structured questions and records the responses. This technique provides a detailed understanding of topics under discussion and can be very useful for the researcher (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). Personal interviews can be expensive and time-consuming.
Telephone Interview: These are administered over the telephone. This method is efficient and can be administered to most of the respondents. However, it is going to be hard to set up rapport and also limited by factors such as respondent availability and phone accessibility (Dillman et al., 2014).
Mailing questionnaires: In this, questionnaires are mailed to the respondents, and they are asked to fill them up and return them. Mailing questionnaires can be low in cost, especially when one is targeting a large number of respondents (Fowler, 2014). Response rate can be pretty low, but there is an assurance that the responses will be made correctly.
Schedules: Schedules are standardized questionnaires that are administered by enumerators. Enumerators are trained on how to ask questions and record the answers. It is often efficient and reliable but requires careful training of enumerators and is expensive (Cohen & Manion, 2011).
Execution of Project
The execution or the implementation stage is where the project begins to take shape. After all the theories and deliberations, this is where the researcher begins to work practically – to gather information, perform research and even make various assessments ( Robson & McCartan, 2016). This is the step of the execution where all the abstract ideas have to be converted to practical research methods. In order to achieve success, it is imperative for the researchers to have a good understanding of the purpose of the research, effective strategizing, and discipline in adhering to the research plan. The modes of research used such as surveys, experiments, or observations, must be done with utmost precision as they determine the credibility of the outcome (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). Every aspect is important, as even a tiny mistake can bring about bias or inaccuracy which may compromise the integrity of the research.
Carrying out the project involves resource management, planning, and controlling the project’s progress among other activities. Naturally, not all events unfold as they were organized. In such situations, one needs to be patient and flexible (Patton, 2002). Flexibility at the approach level with firmness in the project's objectives can help pave the way for smooth navigation over the unexpected situations.
In essence, the execution phase is a stage of transition from theory into practice. It is that stage where the research activity will take place in order to gather data necessary for answering issues relevant to the activity or validating proposed hypotheses (Creswell, 2014).
Analysis of Data
The next stage after the collection of data is one of the significant activities in any given research; that is the analysis stage. The researchers, for instance, begin to scan through the unorganized data in search for any possible trend or information that is not easily observable (Bryman, 2016). This stage is mainly concerned with structuring and explaining the results of the research.
The analysis that is carried out differs from one type of data to another. In case the data involves figures and variables, researchers may employ regression models or correlation analysis (Bryman, 2016; Field, 2018). Data that is qualitative may employ the use of thematic analysis or content analysis in extracting relevant patterns and insights (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Precision and caution are both an equally important part of the process. Errors that occur in this phase while carrying out data analysis can produce wrong findings and hence distort the entire project (Robson & McCartan, 2016). It is not simply a matter of calculating figures or applying codes to data—it is about ensuring that the procedures involved are up to standard and that the findings and conclusions made can be supported without doubt.
Generalizations
To generalize is to take the results of a particular investigation and apply them to a larger group or setting (Patton, 2002). This is one of the primary purposes of research- what we can refer to as quantitative research, in that it enables researchers to make inferences beyond the given study sample (Creswell, 2014). Nevertheless, for such inferences to be justifiable, the study must employ an appropriate sampling technique and employ strict methodological disciplines.
There are limitations with generalizing the research findings. One of the major limitations is that a truly representative sample of the entire population needs to be obtained (Fowler, 2014). In the same way, domestic research that is placed in a culture or region may not be valid in a different region without modification.
In order to strengthen the reliability of generalizations, one needs to pay attention to the sampling techniques, so that the sample is both sufficiently high in numbers, and heterogeneous enough to represent the entire population (Cohen & Manion, 2011). Furthermore, there is a need for repeatability of findings for it to be confirmed that they hold true in differing situations. In-built in the above generalization is the generalization in research. It is said that theory evolves upon a number of inter-related studies. When research results are generalized and empirical confirmation is obtained, generalizations that are directed at different contexts help build theories that can explain such occurrences in different cases (Bryman, 2016).
Interpretation
Presenting the data alone once it has been gathered and examined is insufficient; the researcher also needs to interpret the results and discuss how they add to the body of knowledge already in existence, situating them in the broader context (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015).
One of the first major steps in interpreting research findings is the comparison with previous studies in the same field. This comparison contextualizes the new result within its own significance. Once these findings are placed within perspective, the researcher should also consider their further implications. How do these findings add to overall understanding of the research topic? What are the possible 'real-world' applications? (Robson & McCartan, 2016).
Another important component of interpretation is the recognition of the study's limitations. Are there outside influences that could have impacted the outcome? Self-reported data, for example, is more likely to have flaws or biasing. It is important to recognize these limitations to improve the transparency of the study and enable other researchers to consider them in future investigations (Bryman, 2016).
Interpretation immediately leads to new questions and new avenues for further investigation. Results that are contrary to known theories may spur further research into probing that question of the phenomenon more deeply (Creswell, 2014).
Preparing your Thesis
This is the formal expression of the research process and findings in a structured, systematic and formal manner representing the significance, methods, results, and implications to the academic community. This is the final step to preparing your paper.
A well-structured research paper can be divided into the following main sections:
Preliminary Pages: They serve as the introductory section of the research paper. This includes the title page, acknowledgements, abstract and table of contents. Abstract is a concise summary of the entire research study. Typically, it is only 150-300 words long. It outlines the research questions, methods, results, findings and conclusions. It offers a quick overview of the research’s purpose and significance. Abstract should be clear, informative as it helps the reader decide whether the paper is relevant to their interests (APA, 2020).
Body of the Paper: this forms the heart of a research paper. This section provides wordy explanations on the objectives, methodologies, results, and interpretation of the study.
Introduction: It outlines the research challenge and provides background information about the subject of the study. It gives the paper's background and expounds why the investigation was necessary. In addition to stating the objectives of the study and the introduction on the research topic, it also states the knowledge gap. It also explains how the research will advance the field, supporting the significance of the study.
Literature Review : This section reviews and critically assesses existing previous works that relate to the study's topic. It helps highlight lacunae in the literature that the current study seeks to fill. The literature review is critical because it contextualises the research within the body of current knowledge and supports, at the same time, the need for the study and the methods adopted. This also focuses on the ways the study contributes or deviates from past research (Fink, 2014).
Methodology: In this section, the methodology that has been adopted for the research is explained in great length. It contains explanations of the sample strategies, data collection methods, analysis processes, and study designs. Ensuring the replicability of the study is crucial as it enables other researchers to do the same research under analogous settings. Here, specificity and clarity are crucial because any inconsistencies could jeopardise the validity of the study (Creswell, 2014).
Results: The data gathered during the study is presented in the results section, which frequently uses tables, graphs, and charts to summarise the conclusions. This part presents the study's findings in a strictly descriptive manner, highlighting any relevant statistical analyses along with trends and patterns.
Discussion: The study's findings are interpreted in this section. It also evaluates whether the study's goals were met, considers the ramifications of the results, and contrasts them with earlier studies. The discussion, which considers how the results add to the body of information already in existence, frequently touches on the study's possible shortcomings and makes recommendations for future research areas (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019).
Conclusion: The conclusion offers a last analysis of the research methodology and findings. It restates the study's importance and highlights its main conclusions. It outlines the primary contributions the study brings to the subject and makes recommendations for useful applications or potential lines of inquiry.
End Matter: Extra items that supplement the main text but are not essential to the report are included in the end matter. These could consist of:
Appendices: Appendices include further information (raw data, technical details, questionnaires, or extra statistics) if needed. Although this information is frequently too extensive for the main text, readers who are interested in more in-depth details could find it interesting.
Bibliography/References: A thorough list of all the sources that are cited in the research report must be included. Books, journal articles, websites, and other materials that influenced the research should be included in this reference list, which should be formatted according to the accepted citation style (APA, MLA, etc.).
Choosing a Suitable Journal
After comprehensively conducting the research and putting it down on paper, the next step is to publish these results in an academic journal. Choosing the proper journal to submit the research is essential as it guarantees that the audience intended for the research finds it and also that the research fits well in the relevant area.
Matching the Journal to the Research Focus
Every journal actively engages in a specific publishing scope and types of research as determined by the publication policies of the journal. Therefore, for your research, it is logical to select a journal dedicated to its area of focus (Elsevier, 2019).
Evaluating Journal Impact and Audience
The impact factor is a measure of how often articles published in a particular journal are cited within a specified period, indicating the popularity or the academic weight of the journal that has published it (Björk & Solomon, 2012) . High impact factor journals are respected and have a wide readership, however, they tend to be very competitive as they have very low acceptance rates. On the one hand, researchers have to consider whether the benefits of milestones, such as being published in a prestigious high-impact journal, outweigh the chances that such an article will get accepted for publication. In case of specific subjects, it may be more realistic to publish work in a narrower field with a relevant audience but perhaps with a higher chance of acceptance of the article.
Open Access v. Subscription-Based Journals
The other consideration that comes in, is publishing in the open-access journal as opposed to traditional subscription-based journals. Open-access journal publishes articles free of charge to the readers which helps enhance the scope and application of the research. Nevertheless, these journals tend to impose various fees on the authors whose work is to be published in their journals. On the other hand, any majority of subscription journals do not charge the authors but provides accessibility of their materials to only those who would pay a subscription fee (Suber, 2012).
Understanding submission requirements of a certain journal
When it comes to writing for journals, those aspiring to get published can understand each journal has its submission requirements including manuscript limits, design features, and styles of citation among others. These requirements should be strictly observed if one is to be successful with a submission as breach of any of them may be a cause for rejection. If a completed manuscript is also prepared in accordance with the requirements of a certain journal, the chances of its publication success are significantly raised.
Reflecting on the Qualities of the Journal Suggested for Publication
In most cases, the articles submitted to academic journals are subjected to an evaluation by a panel of competent experts in relevancy and quality before they are accepted for publication. Being aware of the peer-review process, especially knowing which model of the peer review is used by that journal e.g. single blind, double blind or open peer review, can assist in setting up the right expectations. Due to the fact that the identity of both the author as well as the reviewers is kept anonymous in a double blind review, the chances of biases are reduced resulting in a more equitable evaluation (Wellington & Sikes, 2014).
References
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Aditi Singh is part of the Global Internship Research Program (GIRP) under IJNGP.
TAGS RESEARCH | ACADEMIC WRITING | THESES | DATA COLLECTION | REPORT
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