Evolution of Psychology: Outlining Debates and Dialogues among its Schools

Upasana

Dr B.R. Ambedkar University, Delhi

21st April 2025

Since the field’s inception, the continuous evolution of psychology has been guided by a milieu of frameworks engaging in debate and dialogue with each other. These schools, which emerged in sequential order throughout the 20th century, represent psychology’s maturation from a focus on unconscious driving forces to conscious experience, cognition and personal development. Even if they differ in methodology and focus, collectively, they all helped pave the way for modern psychological science and practice.

Psychoanalysis 

Freud’s concept of the unconscious represented a significant paradigm shift in the very ontology of the psyche and its dynamics. Present in his work almost from the start, he developed it into the full fledged tripartite topographical model of mental life consisting of the unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious. This model is often represented as an iceberg with the unconscious forming the vast, invisible mass below the surface. Since the unconscious could not be directly accessed to its very nature, Freud developed certain techniques and theories to both understand and converse with it. Everyday events like forgetting, slips of tongue, more popularly known as Freudian slips, and dreams became sites of rupture for the unconscious to manifest itself. Similarly, the processes of repression and suppression, which he later on expanded as forms of defense mechanisms, were also evidence of the unconscious and its censoring by our conscious. He also posited that there exist two primal or instinctual drives in humans, the sexual and aggressive drives. This is also governed more consciously by the pleasure principle and the reality principle which work together to maximise pleasure for us while accommodating the reality of our circumstances. The preconscious contains elements that are not present in our awareness but can be made so through conscious effort. Images and material from both consciousness and the unconscious slip into the preconscious. Lastly, the conscious did not receive significant attention in Freudian psychoanalysis. It was conceptualised as a receiver of perceptual stimuli and both the censor of unconscious material and the site where modified, censored materials escape to (Ciccarelli, 2014). 

In addition to this topographic model, Freud also gave the provincial model of the personality in the form of the id, ego and the superego. Developed in his early writings on narcissism and the reality and pleasure principles, he thought of the id as the completely unconscious, primal region of our mental life which is governed completely by the pleasure principle. The newborn infant is the id personified as it seeks gratification without regards for what is possible or what is right (Fiest, 2008). The ego serves the reality principle and is the executive branch of personality. The ego serves multiple tyrants as best as it can, trying to balance the needs and demands of the id, superego and the external world. It develops when the infant grows up and is able to differentiate itself from the world around it. Lastly, the superego develops in response to the rewards and punishments meted out to the child in response to its behaviours, s/he learns what is “good” and “bad” and internalises it as an internal critical voice dictating the acceptability of his/her thoughts and behaviours going on. 

Based on his theory of the mind and the personality, Freud gave the stages of psychosexual development. Each stage had a certain erogenous zone that became the centre of pleasure — the mouth in anal stage, anus in the anal stage, genital in genital stage. The way and extent to which the child is gratified dictates their development later on. Both over and under gratification come with their own host of problems and fixations that manifest later on in life. It was also here that he introduced the (in)famous oedipus complex. 

As controversial a figure as Freud was, his theories inspired an unparalleled level of research and theorisation by both his followers and detractors. Amongst the post-freudian psychoanalysts, the most popular are Adler’s individual psychology, Jung’s collective unconscious, Klein’s object relations, and Fromm’s humanistic psychoanalysis. Thus, psychoanalysis changed the landscape of psychology by drawing attention to the more complex facets of human development and relationships (Ciccarelli, 2014). 

Behaviourism 

An almost direct opposite of Freud’s psychoanalysis, behaviourism was a theory based in the scientific observation of human behaviour. Emerging in the early 20th century as a reaction against the introspective and subjective methods of then-existing frameworks, behaviourism rejected the exploration of mental processes, which were considered immeasurable and unscientific. Instead, it emphasised behaviour alone as the sole legitimate object of psychological study, claiming that actions could be quantified and predicted, and changed through controlled experimentation.

This movement was led by John B. Watson, who is regarded as the father of behaviourism, and who passionately eschewed these concepts as consciousness, introspection, instincts, and mental states, as they are metaphysics and not proper empirical psychology. In his landmark paper, “Psychology as the behaviourist Views It”, published in 1913, Watson had redefined psychology as an objective natural science that deals solely with the prediction and control of behaviour, purging it of any subjective or unobservable aspects.

Watson’s most famous demonstration of behavioural principles was the controversial Little Albert experiment (1920), where he and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a 9-month-old infant to fear a white rat by pairing its presentation with a loud, startling noise. This experiment not only illustrated classical conditioning, a process first described by Ivan Pavlov—but also suggested that complex emotional responses could be artificially instilled through environmental stimuli, supporting Watson’s radical claim that human behaviour was entirely shaped by experience. This idea was further reinforced by Edward Thorndike’s earlier work on the law of effect (1898), which posited that behaviours followed by satisfying consequences (rewards) were more likely to be repeated, while those followed by annoying consequences (punishments) were suppressed. Thorndike’s experiments with puzzle boxes and animals laid the groundwork for the behaviourist understanding of learning as a trial-and-error process governed by environmental feedback.

The behaviourist paradigm reached its zenith with B.F. Skinner, whose work on operant conditioning systematized the principles of reinforcement and punishment. Skinner’s experiments with the "Skinner box" demonstrated how animals could be trained to perform complex behaviours through schedules of reinforcement, systematic patterns of rewarding desired actions. He distinguished between positive reinforcement (adding a reward to increase behaviour), negative reinforcement (removing an aversive stimulus to increase behaviour), and punishment (adding or removing a stimulus to decrease behaviour). Skinner’s radical behaviourism extended these principles to human behaviour, arguing that free will was an illusion and that all actions were determined by environmental contingencies. 

Gestalt Psychology 

Gestalt psychology emerged in the early 20th century as a direct challenge to the reductionist approaches of structuralism and behaviourism, arguing that human perception and cognition could not be understood by breaking experiences into isolated elements. Founded by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka in Germany, this school introduced the revolutionary idea that the mind organizes sensory input into meaningful wholes, famously summarized by the principle that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Through experiments like Wertheimer's phi phenomenon (1912), which demonstrated how the brain perceives motion from static images, Gestalt psychologists revealed innate organizational tendencies in perception, such as the laws of similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity. Gestalt theorists emphasized the active role of the mind in structuring reality, influencing fields from cognitive psychology to design. Though not as dominant as behaviourism, its legacy persists in therapies like Fritz Perls' Gestalt therapy and remains foundational in understanding visual perception, problem-solving, and holistic approaches to human experience. 

Humanism-existentialism 

Very often seen as the third force in psychology, Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychology represented a break from the apparent bleakness and determinism of both psychoanalysis and behaviourism. The primary concept that Maslow was interested in was motivation and he built on this to give his hierarchy of needs, physiological needs at the bottom followed by safety, love and belongingness, esteem and self-actualisation. The needs were organised so on the basis of their prepotency and he called them conative needs implying their motivational character. His portraits of self-actualised people like Mahatma Gandhi were used to illustrate the inherent motivation present in us for all of these needs in order to move towards self-actualization, a process guided by values of truth, beauty, justice etc, values he termed as B-values. 

Carl Rogers was a more practice oriented humanist who developed his theory of personality from his experience as a psychotherapist. His seminal work on client-centered therapy and unconditional positive regard, both based on the premise of the actualising tendency present in humans, the tendency to move towards completion or fulfillment. The tendencies to maintain and to enhance are subsumed within this tendency and can be seen to represent the lower and upper levels of Maslow’s hierarchy. Other foundational ideas expanded on by Rogers are those relating to self-concept, how one views oneself, and positive self-regard, a positive valuation of oneself borne of love from others but eventually independent and self-perpetuating. 

He also outlined certain barriers to psychological health. First, conditions of worth are criteria we internalise from our upbringing which then become the yardsticks based on which we accept or reject our experiences. Second, incongruence occurs when there exists a gap between our present self and our ideal self. This gap causes negative self-regard and becomes a source of distress. Third, defensiveness is a protective and reactive mechanism in response to this gap between our organismic experience and perceived self. Simply put, it is protection of our self against anxiety through denial or distortion of experiences inconsistent with it. 

The harrowing events and experiences of World War II drove several psychologists, particularly in Europe, towards deeper questions of existence and meaning. Rooted in the philosophy of Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Nietzche, existentialism was broadly concerned with questions of freedom, responsibility and free will. Writers like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre gave it a modern shape through their writings in the 20th century. One of the foremost psychologists in this field was Rollo May who believed that many people lack the courage to face their destiny, and in their process of fleeing from it, they give up much of their freedom. Thus, we abdicate our freedom when we abdicate our responsibilities. The acquisition of freedom is accompanied by a sense of anxiety which May defined as a subjective state of an individual becoming aware of the impermanence of his existence and the possibility of becoming “nothing”. This anxiety could either be normal (proportionate and not repressed), or it could be neurotic (disproportionate and involving repression or any other intrapsychic conflict). To address the daunting question of meaning, he brought in the concept of intentionality, which he said makes it possible for us as subjects to understand the objective world around us. 

Another key figure was Viktor Frankl whose theory of logotherapy emphasised the human search for meaning as the primary motivational force. His seminal work, Man’s Search for Meaning, illustrates how prisoners in concentration camps endured by clinging to personal meaning, whether through love, future goals, or spiritual resilience. Frankl identified three avenues to meaning: creative work, experiential values, and attitudinal values. He rejected any form of determinism, insisting that humans retain the freedom to choose their responses to suffering. He gave the utmost importance to resilience and transformative living, and his ideas on suffering shaped existential therapy. 

Cognitive Psychology 

Cognitive psychology emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as a reaction against the shortcomings of behaviourism and a basic revolution in psychology from a focus on observable behaviour to internal mental experience. This "cognitive revolution" was led by a number of major theorists who defied behaviourist orthodoxy and established cognition as an acceptable area of scientific study. This revolution concurred with the behaviourists on the fact that psychology should be studied scientifically but they also gave importance to internal processes and utilised the analogy of computers to visualise the mental processes as those involving input, processing, and then output. 

Noam Chomsky, one of the most famous figures of the cognitive and linguistic revolution of the 60s critiqued B.F. Skinner's theory of verbal behaviour and presented the case powerfully that language learning could not be accounted for in terms of reinforcement but was a function of innate cognitive frameworks. This nativist approach was reinforced by Jean Piaget's pioneering research into cognitive development in children, which provided a theory of universal stages of mental development from sensorimotor to formal operational thought.

Theoretical models burgeoned as cognitive psychology came of age. The primary focus of these models was on memory. For example, Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model of memory, which differentiated between sensory, short-term, and long-term memory systems. This was extended by Craik and Lockhart's levels-of-processing theory (1972) that focused on depth of encoding rather than on structural differences. These theoretical breakthroughs were fueled by methodological developments. Early information-processing theories were brought forth by Broadbent's filter model of attention (1958), whereas Tulving's division between episodic and semantic memory (1972) clarified concepts of long-term memory organization. 

Key Similarities and Differences 

1. Nature vs. Nurture

This basic question has formed the ground for major disagreements between different frameworks in psychology as it addresses the very ontology of human nature. Psychoanalysis occupies a middle ground, stressing both inherent biological drives and the significance of early childhood experience in the formation of personality. Behaviourism holds the extreme end of the nurture position, claiming that all behaviour is acquired by environmental conditioning and reinforcement, and no inherent traits exist. The Gestalt school is more nature-oriented, with a focus on inherent, ingrained principles of perceptual organization. Cognitive psychology takes an interactionist stance, acknowledging biological limits but highlighting the way in which mental processes emerge through experience. Humanism-existentialism mostly goes beyond this conflict by stressing free will and the human ability to construct their own lives in spite of biological or environmental determinism.

2. Consciousness and cognitive processes

These schools branch out dramatically in their approach to consciousness and mental life. Psychoanalysis gives pride of place to the unconscious mind as the key driver of behaviour, with conscious experience merely being the tip of the psychological iceberg. Behaviourism notoriously eschewed the investigation of mental processes altogether, concentrating solely on observable behaviour. Gestalt psychology and cognitive psychology both deal with conscious experience, although Gestalt is concerned with immediacy of perceptual experience whereas cognitive psychology deals with higher mental processes such as memory and problem-solving. Humanism-existentialism deals most directly with conscious experience, specifically subjective experience of choice, meaning, and self-growth.

3. Methodology

The methodological differences draw from their theoretical differences and serve each school’s respective aims. Psychoanalysis relies heavily on clinical case studies, dream analysis, and free association techniques to uncover unconscious motivations and childhood experiences. Behaviourism takes a radically empirical approach through controlled laboratory experiments, focusing exclusively on observable behaviours and using conditioning paradigms like Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning. Gestalt psychology employs phenomenological observation and problem-solving experiments to study how people perceive integrated wholes rather than isolated parts. Cognitive psychology utilises sophisticated, experimental methods including reaction-time studies, memory tasks, and more recently neuroimaging techniques like fMRI to understand mental processes like attention, memory and decision-making. Humanistic-existential approaches favor qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews, diary studies and phenomenological analysis to understand subjective experiences, personal growth and the search for meaning.

4. View of Psychopathology

Each school conceptualizes psychological distress quite differently. Psychoanalysis views mental illness as stemming from unresolved unconscious conflicts, often rooted in childhood. behaviourism sees maladaptive behaviours as learned through conditioning that can be unlearned. Cognitive psychology identifies irrational thought patterns as the source of emotional distress. Humanism-existentialism views psychological problems as resulting from blocked growth potential or failure to find meaning in life. Gestalt psychology emphasizes how incomplete perceptions or unresolved experiences lead to psychological distress.

Therapy Approaches

Psychoanalytic Therapy employs a wide gamut of techniques to investigate unconscious processes. Free association allows patients to talk freely without any self-imposed censorship, and dream analysis investigates manifest and latent content for concealed meaning. Therapists employ both to identify patterns underlying pathology. Transference analysis observes patients' use of past dynamics in their therapist, and resistance analysis confronts defensive avoidance. Childhood reconstruction investigates early experiences that determine current behavior. Results include awareness of conflicts, resolution of personality patterns, diminishing maladaptive defenses, and enhancing emotional regulation and relationships. Efficacy is demonstrated for personality disorders, chronic depression, and complex trauma, and contemporary modifications make it more applicable.

Behavioural Therapy uses evidence-based methods to alter observable behaviour. Systematic desensitization gradually exposes patients to phobias and teaches relaxation. Exposure and response prevention confronts anxiety cues with prevention of avoidance. Behavioural activation builds reinforcing activities for treating depression, and token economies use exchangeable rewards for reinforcement. Social skills training augments interpersonal behaviour with modelled and role-played learning. Treatment aims to eliminate harmful responses, install new behaviours, reduce avoidance, and enhance coping. The approach is highly supported for anxiety disorders, OCD, ADHD, and behaviour addictions, especially for brief treatments.

Gestalt Therapy focuses on awareness in the here and now using experiential methods. While somewhat similar to humanistic therapy, Gestalt therapy is more directive and incolves direct confrontation of clients' statements to invoke reflection. The therapist does this by leading the client through a number of planned experiences. The empty chair technique facilitates communication with supposed others or parts of the self, with the client addressing the other or the self via the chair. Effects of treatment focus on increased present awareness, resolution of unfinished business, facilitation of emotional integration, and authentic expression of self. Clinical evidence exists for its application for relationship problems, unresolved loss, and increased emotional awareness, typically in conjunction with other experiential interventions.

Cognitive Therapy recognises and alters thought patterns with formalised techniques. Cognitive restructuring opposes unhelpful thinking, and behavioural experiments test hypotheses with behavior. Thought records monitor automatic thoughts, and Socratic questioning reveals cognitive patterns. Decatastrophising examines the likelihood and consequence of feared events. The treatment seeks to alter dysfunctional thinking, develop coping skills, increase reality testing, and enhance problem-solving. It is a gold-standard treatment for depression and anxiety and has robust evidence for cognitive-behavioral integration (CBT). 

Humanistic-Existential Therapy focuses on personal growth and coming into one’s self via reflection and taking responsibility. Active listening guarantees non-judgmental thought, and unconditional positive regard guarantees complete acceptance. Facilitating self-actualisation provokes innate growth potential. Treatment objectives are to maximise self-knowledge, foster authenticity, and create meaning. It is particularly effective for life transitions, identity concerns, and existential concerns, and serves as the foundation for client-centered therapies of all kinds, emphasizing human self-direction and growth.

The Influence of Psychological Frameworks on Health, Education, and Business

1. Health and Mental Well-Being

Psychological approaches have revolutionized mental health treatment and behavioural medicine. Psychoanalysis, through psychodynamic therapy, helps resolve unconscious conflicts contributing to chronic mental health conditions like depression and trauma (Shedler, 2010). Research also demonstrates its effectiveness for personality disorders, with studies showing sustained benefits years after treatment (Leichsenring & Rabung, 2011). Behaviourism's principles underpin evidence-based treatments like Cognitive-behavioural Therapy (CBT), which has shown to be highly effective for anxiety disorders and phobia (Hofmann et al., 2012; Wolitzky-Taylor et al., 2008). Cognitive Psychology's contributions to mental health are substantial. CBT, which incorporates cognitive restructuring demonstrates significant value in treating depression (Butler et al., 2006). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy reduces depression relapse by as much as 43% compared to treatment as usual (Kuyken et al., 2016). Humanistic approaches have shown to significantly impact patient-centered care. For instance, research on client-centered therapy shows effect sizes comparable to CBT for various conditions (Elliott et al., 2013). Existential therapies also demonstrate particular effectiveness in palliative care, improving quality of life in terminal patients (Breitbart et al., 2015).

2. Education and Learning

Psychological theories have transformed educational practices. Behaviourism's application in education shows that token economies can increase academic engagement by 40-60% in special education settings (Maggin et al., 2011). Cognitive psychology's impact is evident in meta-analyses showing that spaced repetition improves long-term retention by as much as 200% (Cepeda et al., 2006). Schema-based instruction enhances mathematics learning and increased engagement (Jitendra et al., 2015). Humanistic approaches in education demonstrate significant benefits. Montessori education, based on humanistic principles, produces superior outcomes in social cognition and academic achievement (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006).

3. Business and Organizational Performance

Psychological frameworks optimize workplace functioning. Behaviourism's application in performance management shows that incentive systems can increase productivity and gamification in training improves learning outcomes when compared to traditional methods (Locke & Latham, 2002; Hamari et al., 2014).  In microeconomics contexts, behavioural economics interventions improve retirement savings participation by 40 percentage points (Thaler & Benartzi, 2004). Humanistic approaches, contrary to popular belief, also demonstrate considerable organisational value. Research indicates that transformational leadership increases employee performance and job satisfaction by 20% by 35% respectively (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Gestalt principles significantly impact marketing effectiveness. Studies show that ads employing Gestalt principles achieve higher recall rates and package designs using figure-ground principles increase product selection by consumers (Orth & Malkewitz, 2008; Pieters et al., 2010).

Integrating Multiple Perspectives

The integration of psychological approaches has become increasingly important in modern practice, as no single theoretical framework can fully address the complexity of human behaviour and mental processes. Contemporary psychologists recognize that combining elements from psychoanalysis, behaviourism, Gestalt, cognitive psychology, and humanism-existentialism creates more comprehensive and effective interventions (Norcross & Goldfried, 2019). This integrative approach allows practitioners to draw on the strengths of each perspective while compensating for their individual limitations, resulting in more tailored and flexible treatment strategies. There is also a need for more research examining the long-term effectiveness of integrated approaches compared to traditional single-theory interventions. Future directions in psychological practice will likely involve developing more systematic models for integration, training professionals in multiple theoretical orientations, and creating assessment tools to determine which combinations of techniques work best for specific populations and problems (Castonguay et al., 2015). As the field continues to evolve, the thoughtful integration of psychological approaches promises to enhance our understanding of human behaviour and improve interventions across clinical, educational, and organizational settings.

Conclusion

All of the major and minor psychological perspectives have informed the conversations on human nature, consciousness, behaviour and pathology. Consequently, they have approached the crucial areas of education, business and psychopathology from different points, with each having different but equally important merits, as shown by empirical evidence. These apparently divergent frameworks have also been integrated to better serve humanity and their interests. Thus, a difference in paradigms has been highly productive for the discipline and continues to be so. 

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Upasana  is part of the Global Internship Research Program (GIRP) under IJNGP.

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TAGS PSYCHOLOGY | EVOLUTION | SCIENCE | GROWTH | THERAPY